An Essay on Man

Alexander Pope's An Essay on Man navigates the issue of theodicy articulately, concluding that man's situation is intended for him to have enough pleasure to enjoy life and enough ignorance to be unaware of larger worries that would detract from the joy of living. The issue with his argument is that it is predicated upon a universal creator, an assertion which is assumed but never proven. If we challenge the existence of a creator, the question of theodicy falls more to the uncaring aspect of nature. Death, deformity, pain, ailments--it all becomes less orderly without a larger creator and plan.

Pope begins his essay with the assertion "that man is not to be deemed imperfect, but a being suited to his place and rank in the creation, agreeable to the general order of things, and conformable to ends and relations to him unknown, [...]. That it is partly upon his ignorance of future events, and partly upon the hope of a future state, that all his happiness in the present state depends" (90). Given his assertion, it is clear that Pope believes in larger order and plan, than man is created fittingly for his role, and that this status, along with lack of greater knowledge, is intended to enable man to enjoy the present (as the future is unknowable, and ultimately leads to death). Pope criticizes "the pride of aiming at more knowledge, and pretending to more perfection, the cause of man's error and misery," which refers to not only growing study in technical and medical sciences, but also relates back to the Garden of Eden, or as Pope writes, "Garden, tempting with forbidden fruit" (Pope 90). In reaching to know more, Pope argues that man is "presumptuous" and in lamenting one's state, we should "say not Man's imperfect, Heave in fault/ Say rather, Man's as perfect as he ought" (Pope 91-92). Continually Pope relies upon an unknown cosmic order as justification for being satisfied with one's status; questioning this role is offensive to the great creator and shows the small-sightedness of man. One could argue, contingent upon belief in a creator, that striving to know more of the world and our place is just striving to be closer to that creator, like Plato's focus on the realm of Forms.

Ultimately, Pope provides direction based upon a secular belief rather than logic. Contentedness is not based upon believing in God, but rather focusing on the positive. People do not have to be lambs protected from knowledge of slaughter; we are all aware of our mortality and thus strive to enjoy life as best we can. That we are unaware of when we die suggests the randomness of life, just as much as an unknowable creator's larger plan.

de Navarre

Marguerite de Navarre challenged beliefs that were accepted based upon tradition rather than logic or morality. The dominance of men over women as well as the devaluation of lower classes were two perspectives she questions through her work, The Heptameron. In the prologue, there is a drawn out conversation, full of social conventions including praising one’s elders and the bawdiness between man and wife, as well as the practices which encourage morality. Lady Oisille represents the mature and pious opinion that daily studying of scriptures and prayer should occupy the group’s time. The masculine perspective then is shared, when Hircan asserts “bear in mind that we have not yet become so mortified in the flesh that we are not in need of some sort of amusement and physical exercise” (de Navarre 1641). The interplay between the subdued feminine pursuits and virility and power of masculine needs conveys conventional gender stereotypes. However, in the story that ensues, the dangers of masculine vigor and feminine plotting become apparent. Moreover, the silliness of the duplicity between man and wife suggests that those of a higher class are no less flawed than their counterparts of other classes.

From the outset of the story, unequal expectations between men and women are made clear. The reader learns that the man Bornet “wanted […his wife] to be faithful to him, but was not so keen on having the rule applied to them both equally” (de Navarre1643). He pursues the chambermaid, who rebuffs his advances. The chambermaid, representing the lower class, not only avoids being a mistress but also tells her lady of the situation. In return she becomes a pawn in the lady’s plan to trick her husband. Bornet views the chambermaid as a sexual object; the mistress treats her as a means to an end. Ultimately, the story ends with the maid being the most moral character. The lady of the house assumes the sleeping quarters of the chambermaid, having developed a plot to teach her husband a lesson. Both he and his wife are disgraced when she comes to be shared with his friend, and he recognizes “he had gone and given himself a cuckold’s horns and made himself look ridiculous for evermore” (de Navarre 1645). Marguerite de Navarre is considered a champion for those who operate outside of conventional roles or thought, and her work confirms this assertion. Though the wife technically commits adultery, her husband owns the blame for this and a lesson is made of him. His physical desires were base and degraded not only his wife but also himself. The wife seems silly and unfortunate, but her active role is still admirable, despite the undesirable outcome. However, the chambermaid emerges as the most moral character, having avoided the husband’s advances and still retained the trust of her lady. Still, the entire scene is not entirely satisfactory: the chambermaid has little human value given her role in arranging the tryst; the wife is debased and somewhat foolish; the husband is aware of his failings and is not only a lecher but the cause of his own grief as a cuckold.

Sunjata

Embedded within the Mande culture is a focus on the oral tradition. While this is a mode of preserving culture, it also leads to adaptation and perhaps variations in the story. Considering the work "Sunjata: A West African Epic," the origin of the bride carrying tradition is explained, though it perhaps has changed or has alternative meanings in other cultures.

The maltreatment of Sogolon Conde is indicative of the shallowness and pettiness of focusing on outer appearance. Those escorting her to her groom are concerned that she will get dust on them and so entreat her "Walk well./ Do not put us in the dust;" however, upon realizing she cannot alter her walking, they decide to carry her ("Sunjata" lns. 761-762). Without context, the act of carrying someone seems humble and generous; the motives based upon the tale seem selfish. As the wives carry Sogolon Conde, her head wrap falls off, exposing her bald head, and this leads to more ridicule. The wives sign "heron-head," and the reader is told "this offended Sogolon Conde" ("Sunjata" 782. 784). Similar to the antiquated idea that marriage is the submission of woman's will to her husband, being carried to the marriage mimics this loss of volition. Additionally, the communal aspect of participating in the marriage reinforces the sense that marriages are a social event; though the union is between two people, it involves the community. Similar to oral history, the community must be involved to sustain the tradition.

Another cultural wedding tradition is that of handfasting, typically attributed to Celtic origin. There is symbolism in the tying of hands to bond two into one; the difference is that in earlier times this could be seen as a trial union, one where after a year and a day, the couple could either continue together or part ways. Handfasting is more like a transaction or business deal whereby the couple enters into an understanding with terms and conditions. Traditional unions are intended to be permanent, however the potential for couples to re-evaluate their relationship seems surprisingly modern. Alternately, there is a potential for the more negative perception of the fallen woman, if she is united to a man and then left after intimacy. Culture has evolved to the point that this stigma is far lessened, but one can only question how the woman would fare after breaking the union during the early times of handfasting.